Western Ghats

The Western Ghats comprise the mountain range that runs along the western coast of India, from the Vindhya-Satpura ranges in the north to the southern tip. The ecosystems of the Western Ghats are located mainly in the following regions: the tropical wet evergreen forests in Amboli and Radhanagari; the Montane evergreen forests in Mahabaleshwar and Bhimashanker; moist deciduous forests in Mulsi and the scrub forest in Mundunthurai.
There is a great variety of vegetation all along the Ghats: scrub jungles, grassland along the lower altitudes, dry and moist deciduous forests, and semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. There are two main centres of diversity, the Agashyamalai hills and the Silent Valley. The complex topography and the heavy rainfall have made certain areas inaccessible and have helped the region retain its diversity.
Almost one-third of all the flowering plant species in India are found in this region. Of the 450-odd plants found in this region, 40% are endemic (these are species that have adapted to this particular area and the conditions existing in it.) There is an equal diversity of animal and bird life. There is only one biodiversity reserve in the Western Ghats, the Nilgiri biodiversity reserve,which helps in conserving endemic and endangered species. A few of the indigenous and exotic tree and plant species in the Western Ghats are the teak, jamun, cashew, hog plum, coral tree, jasmine, and crossandra.

Some of the national parks situated in this region are the Borivali national park in Maharahshtra near Mumbai, which is home to a large variety of birds, and the Nagarhole national park, which borders the Bandipur national park, famous for its tiger leopard, sloth bear, barking deer and mouse deer. More than 250 species of birds are found in this park. There is the Anamalai wildlife sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, which has evergreen forests and tall high-altitude temperate grasslands. The Nilgiri languar, the rare lion-tailed macaque, spotted deer, and the giant squirrel are some of the animals found here. Racket tailed drongos, hornbills, fairy bluebirds are some of the birds seen here. The famous Periyar national park in Kerala is home to a large number of elephants, gaur, sambhar, and lion-tailed macaque and a variety of birds.

During the past 40 to 50 years the plant and animal life has as a whole suffered due to so-called development and urbanization, which has led to the extinction of many species and more are in danger of becoming extinct. http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/life/western.htm

South India's vanishing rain forests, the Western Ghats (hill ranges running parallel to the south-west coast of peninsular India) are an area of exceptional biological, cultural diversity and conservation interest. This unique treasure trove - home to a fascinating array of flora and fauna, indigenous people, ancient forts and monuments etc. is facing the wrath of uncontrolled development. Buckling under modern pressures - mining, dams, timber felling- this pristine natural area is fast depleting. Threatened to extinction, the rain forests of Southern India are in a dilapidated state. The Adventurers have taken up various initiatives in the past to endear people to these fast depleting rain forests. A massive initiative to save the rain forests of the Western Ghats has been launched by The Adventurers - http://www.westernghats.org/

All Threatened Vertebrate Species Occurring in Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

Faced with tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats has been dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and agricultural land. Remaining forests of the Western Ghats are heavily fragmented. Population levels are also applying increased stress on the fringes of protected areas where many farms, loggers, and poachers use the resources illegally.

Due in part to the varying effect of the yearly monsoons and the high mountain regions, this hotspot is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles, and amphibians. The region also houses important populations of Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the Endangered lion-tailed macaque. Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well, with over 140 native species. http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/ghats/

The Western Ghats of Maharashtra spread from the Satpura Range to the north, and continues south past Goa to Karnataka. The major hill range of the sector is Sayadhri range, which is home to the hill stations of Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani. The Biligirirangans southeast of Mysore in Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys (Servarayan range) and Tirumala range farther east, linking the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats. Smaller ranges, including the Nilgiri Hills with Doddabetta being the highest peak at 2,623 metres (8,606 ft), are in northwestern Tamil Nadu. In the southern part of the range in Kerala, Ana Mudi 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. Chembra Peak 2,100 metres (6,890 ft), Banasura Peak 2,073 metres (6,801 ft), Vellarimala 2,200 metres (7,218 ft) and Agasthya mala 1,868 metres (6,129 ft) are also in Kerala. These hill ranges serve as important wildlife corridors, allowing seasonal migration for species like elephants.

The major gaps in the range are the Goa gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border.

The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan Coast or simply Konkan, and the southern portion is called Malabar region or the Malabar Coast. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of central Karnataka state is known as the Malnad region. The largest city within the mountains is the city of Pune, in the Desh region on the eastern edge of the range.

The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The dense forests also contribute to the precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for condensation of moist rising orographic winds from the sea, and releasing much of the moisture back into the air via transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as rain.

The Western Ghats are not true mountains but a rather, the upraised faulted edge of the Deccan plateau.[1] They are believed to have been formed during the break-up of the super continent of Gondwana some 150 million years (mya) ago. Geo-physicists Barren and Harrison from the University of Miami advocate the theory that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. After the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 metres in height.[2]

Soon after its detachment, the peninsular region of the Indian plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot, a volcanic hotspot in the earth's lithosphere near the present day location of Réunion ( 21°06′S, 55°31′E). A huge eruption here some 65 mya is thought to have laid down the Deccan Traps, a vast bed of basalt lava that covers parts of central India. These volcanic upthrusts led to the formation of the northern third of the Western Ghats. Since these uplifts are dome-shaped in nature, the underlying rock is ancient, dating back 200 mya, and can be observed in some parts such as the Nilgiris.[3]

Basalt is the predominant rock found in the hills reaching a depth of 3 km (2 mi). Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are also found in the southern hills.

Climate in the Western Ghats varies with altitudinal gradation and distance from the equator. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Elevations of 1,500 m (4,921 ft) and above in the north and 2,000 m (6,562 ft) and above in the south have a more temperate climate. Average annual temperature here are around 15 °C (60 °F). In some parts frost is common, and temperatures touch the freezing point during the winter months. Mean temperature range from 20 °C (68 °F) in the south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the north. It has also been observed that the coldest periods coincide with the wettest.[3]

During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 3,000–4,000 mm (120–160 in) with localised extremes touching 9,000 mm (350 in). The eastern region of the Western Ghats which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall averaging about 1,000 mm (40 in) bringing the average rainfall figure to 2,500 mm (150 in). Data from rainfall figures reveal that there is no relationship between the total amount of rain received and the spread of the area. Areas to the north in Maharashtra receive the heaviest rainfall, but are followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive less annual rainfall, with rain spells lasting almost the entire year.

The Western Ghats form one of the three watershed of India, feeding the perennial rivers of peninsula India. Important rivers include the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. Rivers that flow to the west drain out into the Arabian Sea. These rivers are fast-moving, owing to the short distance travelled and steeper gradient. Important rivers include the Mandovi, Zuari, and Periyar. Many of these rivers feed the backwaters of Kerala and Maharashtra. Rivers that flow eastwards of the Ghats drain into the Bay of Bengal. These are comparatively slower moving and eventually merge into larger rivers such as the Kaveri and Krishna. Smaller rivers include the Chittar River, Bhima River, Malaprabha River, Manimuthar River, Kabini River, Kallayi River, Kundali River, Pachaiyar River, Pennar River, and the Tambaraparani River.

Fast running rivers and steep slopes have provided various state governments set large hydro-electric projects. There are about major 50 dams along the length of the Western Ghats with the earliest project up in 1900 near Khopoli in Maharashtra.[5] Most notable of these projects are the Koyna Dam in Maharashtra, the Parambikulam Dam in Kerala, and the Linganmakki Dam in Karnataka. The reservoir behind the Koyna Dam, the Shivajisagar Lake, is one of the largest reservoirs in India with a length of 50 km (31 mi) and depth of 80 m (262 ft).[6]

During the monsoon season, numerous streams fed by incessant rain drain off the mountain sides leading to numerous and often spectacular waterfalls. Among the most well known is the Jog Falls, Kunchikal Falls, Sivasamudram Falls, and Lushington Falls.

Amazon Rain Forest

The Amazon River Basin is home to the largest rainforest on Earth. The basin -- roughly the size of the forty-eight contiguous United States -- covers some 40% of the South American continent and includes parts of eight South American countries: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname.

Reflecting environmental conditions as well as past human influence, the Amazon is made up of a mosaic of ecosystems and vegetation types including rainforests, seasonal forests, deciduous forests, flooded forests, and savannas. The basin is drained by the Amazon River, the world's largest river in terms of discharge, and the second longest river in the world after the Nile. The river is made up of over 1,100 tributaries, 17 of which are longer than 1000 miles, and two of which (the Negro and the Madeira) are larger, in terms of volume, than the Zaire river. The river system is the lifeline of the forest and its history plays an important part in the development of its rainforests.
At one time Amazon River flowed westward, perhaps as part of a proto-Congo (Zaire) river system from the interior of present day Africa when the continents were joined as part of Gondwana. Fifteen million years ago, the Andes were formed by the collision of the South American plate with the Nazca plate. The rise of the Andes and the linkage of the Brazilian and Guyana bedrock shields, blocked the river and caused the Amazon to become a vast inland sea. Gradually this inland sea became a massive swampy, freshwater lake and the marine inhabitants adapted to life in freshwater. For example, over 20 species of stingray, most closely related to those found in the Pacific Ocean, can be found today in the freshwaters of the Amazon.

About ten million years ago, waters worked through the sandstone to the west and the Amazon began to flow eastward. At this time the Amazon rainforest was born. During the Ice Age, sea levels dropped and the great Amazon lake rapidly drained and became a river. Three million years later, the ocean level receded enough to expose the Central American isthmus and allow mass migration of mammal species between the Americas.

The Ice Ages caused tropical rainforest around the world to retreat. Although debated, it is believed that much of the Amazon reverted to savanna and montane forest (see chapter 3-Ice Ages and Glaciation). Savanna divided patches of rainforest into "islands" and separated existing species for periods long enough to allow genetic differentiation (a similar rainforest retreat took place in Africa. Delta core samples suggest that even the mighty Congo watershed was void of rainforest at this time). When the ice ages ended, the forest was again joined and the species that were once one had diverged significantly enough to be constitute designation as separate species, adding to the tremendous diversity of the region. About 6000 years ago, sea levels rose about 130 meters, once again causing the river to be inundated like a long, giant freshwater lake.

Animal Intelligence

http://www.animalintelligence.org/
Amanda sent a story of a cat who rides the bus.
According to the London Daily Mail, a mystery cat has been hitching a ride for the past few weeks.

A policeman in Vancouver, Canada, feels a duck tugging at his pants. She yanks repeatedly, then waddles to a sewer drain. Following her, the officer finds her trapped ducklings below the street.

In Scotland, safari-park wardens answer their phones to hear the heavy breathing of Chippy the chimpanzee. The chimp had pressed the right buttons to dial preprogrammed numbers on a cell phone he'd swiped from a keeper.

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1590/is_6_58/ai_80748082

It doesn't take a rocket scientist to know that animals are smart. But do animals really think? And if so, are their thoughts similar to ours? Scientists have long tried to figure out the intricate workings of human intelligence, but the process of how a thought is chemically produced in the brain still remains a mystery. Researchers do know that humans rank high on the "smart meter" because of our abilities to use complex language and express abstract ideas. Now ethologists (animal behavior scientists) look for clear signs of intelligence in other animals, starting with three top categories:

* emotions: Chimps react to dramatic TV scenes starring other chimps, which suggests they recognize and express emotions.

* self-recognition: Bottlenose dolphins and chimpanzees recognize themselves in mirrors, which suggests they're aware of themselves as individuals. So far, only primates (humans and apes) and dolphins display this ability.

* language: New research shows that prairie dogs use descriptive chirps to inform their colonies about predators and intruders--a human's size, for example, the colors he wears, how fast he's moving, even whether he's carrying a gun.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition
Animal cognition, or cognitive ethology, is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of animals. It has developed out of comparative psychology, but has also been strongly influenced by the approach of ethology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology. Much of what used to be considered under the title of animal intelligence is now thought of under this heading. Animal language acquisition, attempting to discern or understand the degree to which animal cognistics can be revealed by linguistics-related study, has been controversial among cognitive linguists.


http://www.edwardwillett.com/Columns/animalintelligence.htm
Copyright 2000 by Edward Willett

People with pets find it hard to believe, but scientists continue to debate whether or not animals are conscious--that is, whether they're aware of themselves as individuals.

Some still claim that anything animals do is strictly the result of conditioning. Others are willing to grant animals a certain amount of intelligence, but argue that animals are no more self-aware than computers, which, after all, are also capable of complex, seemingly conscious behavior.

Such critics are getting fewer in number, however, thanks to research at places like Ohio State University, where the first colony of college-educated apes can count, add and subtract, understand fractions on a computer and even match a quantity of objects to its correct Arabic number.

Sarah Boysen, a psychology professor, began trying to teach arithmetic to chimpanzees in the 1970s. By 1991, a chimp named Sheba had figured it out. Once one chimp learned it, others followed.

Fish Capable of Human-Like Logic
Monday, 26 February 2007

Live Science is reporting that scientists have concluded that fish are capable of human-like logic, at least in certain realms.

Fish have the reasoning capacity of a 4- or 5-year-old child when it comes to figuring out who among their peers is “top dog,” new research shows. Stanford University scientists made the discovery—said to be the first demonstration that fish can use logical reasoning to figure out their social pecking order—by studying fights among small, highly territorial, spiny-finned fish called cichlids, common in freshwater in tropical Africa, including in Lake Tanganyika in central Africa.

Logan Grosenick, a graduate student in statistics, and his colleagues found that a sixth fish could infer or learn indirectly which were the 1st through 5th strongest simply by observing fights among them in adjacent, transparent tanks, rather than by directly fighting each fish itself or seeing each fish fight all four others.

This type of reasoning, called transitive inference (TI), is a developmental milestone for human children, showing up nonverbally as early as ages 4 and 5; it also has been reported in monkeys, rats and birds. It allows thinkers to reason that if A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A is also bigger than C.

Anthropomorphizing animals, or casting human intentions on them, is a mistake, Grosenick said, but it’s a philosophical matter as to whether the cichlids’ ability to infer rankings is the same as similar reasoning in humans. “They are making correct logical inferences on an abstract representation of their world, which would usually be called ‘reasoning’ in humans,” he said.

Biologist Russell D. Fernald, one of Grosenick’s colleagues on the study, said that fish thinking is very different from that of humans. “The capacity shown here is a necessary precondition for reasoning, but having this capacity does not mean these fish actually reason or do any other specific logical tasks,” he told LiveScience.

Dolphins

The name is from Ancient Greek δελφίς delphis meaning "with a womb" which can be interpreted as meaning "a 'fish' with a womb".

Dolphins are aquatic mammals which are closely related to whales and porpoises. There are almost forty species of dolphin in seventeen genera. They vary in size from 1.2 metres (4 ft) and 40 kilograms (88 lb) (Maui's Dolphin), up to 9.5 m (30 ft) and ten tonnes (the Orca). They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves, and are carnivores, mostly eating fish and squid. The family Delphinidae is the largest in the Cetacea, and relatively recent: dolphins evolved about ten million years ago, during the Miocene. Dolphins are considered to be amongst the most intelligent of animals and their often friendly appearance and seemingly playful attitude have made them popular in human culture.

The Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) and Indus River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica minor) are two sub-species of freshwater or river dolphins found in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. From the 1970s they had commonly been regarded as separate species. The Ganges River Dolphin is primarily found in River Ganges and its tributaries in India while the Indus River Dolphin is found in the Indus river in Pakistan. However in 1998, a seminal work on cetacean taxonomy listed them as a single species once again (see taxonomy below). The single species is likely to have either the Ganges and Indus River Dolphin or Indian River Dolphin as its common name, although neither has yet spread into wide usage.

The Baiji (Traditional Chinese: 白鱀豚; pinyin: báijìtún) (Lipotes vexillifer, Lipotes meaning "left behind", vexillifer "flag bearer") was a freshwater dolphin found only in the Yangtze River in China. Nicknamed "Goddess of the Yangtze" (長江女神) in China, the dolphin was also called Chinese River Dolphin, Yangtze River Dolphin, Beiji, Pai-chi (Wade-Giles), Whitefin Dolphin and Yangtze Dolphin. It is not to be confused with the Chinese White Dolphin (中華白海豚).

The Baiji population declined drastically in recent decades as China industrialized and made heavy use of the river for fishing, transportation, and hydroelectricity. Efforts were made to conserve the species, but a late 2006 expedition failed to find any Baiji in the river. Organizers declared the Baiji "functionally extinct",^[1] which arguably makes it the first aquatic mammal species to become extinct since the 1950s.

Bald Eagles

The Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), also known in North America as the American Eagle, is a bird of prey found in North America, most recognizable as the national bird of the United States.

The species was on the brink of extinction in the US late in the 20th century, but now has a stable population and is in the process of being removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species.

An immature Bald Eagle has speckled brown plumage, the distinctive white head and body developing 2-3 years later, before sexual maturity. This species is distinguishable from the Golden Eagle in that the latter has feathers which extend down the legs. Also, the immature Bald Eagle has more light feathers in the upper arm area, especially around the 'armpit'.

Adult females have an average wingspan of about 7 feet (2.1 meters); adult males have a wingspan of 6 ft 6 in (2 meters). Adult females weigh approximately 12.8 lb (5.8 kg), males weigh 9 lb (4.1 kg). The smallest specimens are those from Florida, where an adult male may barely exceed 5 lb (2.3 kg) and a wingspan of 6 feet (1.8 meters). The largest are the Alaskan birds, where large females may exceed 15.5 lb (7 kg) and have a wingspan of approximately 8 feet (2.4 meters).

Journey with the North Bald Eagles